V-Speeds Reference
Essential aircraft speed definitions every pilot must know — from stall speed to never-exceed speed.
Last reviewed: March 2026V-speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the operation of aircraft. They are established by the aircraft manufacturer during certification testing and published in the Pilot's Operating Handbook (POH) or Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM). V-speeds provide critical reference points for safe aircraft operation during every phase of flight — from takeoff roll through final approach.
V-Speeds Reference Table
| V-Speed | Name | Definition | Phase of Flight | Level |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| V1 | Takeoff Decision Speed | The maximum speed during takeoff at which the pilot must take the first action to stop the aircraft within the remaining runway length. Beyond V1, the takeoff must be continued. V1 may not exceed Vr. | Takeoff | ATPLCPL |
| Vr | Rotation Speed | The speed at which the pilot begins to apply back-pressure on the control column to rotate the aircraft nose-up for liftoff. Vr must not be less than V1 and must allow V2 to be achieved by 35 feet above the runway. | Takeoff | PPLCPLATPL |
| V2 | Takeoff Safety Speed | The minimum speed that must be maintained after liftoff in the event of an engine failure. It ensures the aircraft can maintain a positive climb gradient with one engine inoperative (OEI) and is achieved by 35 feet AGL. | Takeoff / Initial Climb | ATPLCPL |
| Vs | Stall Speed | The minimum steady flight speed at which the aircraft is controllable. This is the generic term; Vs0 and Vs1 specify configuration. Defined at maximum certificated takeoff weight and 1g load factor. | All phases | PPLCPLATPL |
| Vs0 / Vso | Stall Speed, Landing Configuration | The stall speed or minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration (flaps extended, landing gear down). This defines the lower limit of the white arc on the airspeed indicator. | Approach / Landing | PPLCPLATPL |
| Vs1 | Stall Speed, Clean Configuration | The stall speed or minimum steady flight speed in a specified configuration — typically clean (flaps up, gear retracted). This defines the lower limit of the green arc on the airspeed indicator. | Cruise / All phases | PPLCPLATPL |
| Va | Maneuvering Speed | The maximum speed at which full, abrupt control deflection can be applied without exceeding the aircraft's design limit load factor. At or below Va, the aircraft will stall before structural damage occurs. Va decreases as aircraft weight decreases. | All phases (maneuvering) | PPLCPLATPL |
| Vfe | Maximum Flap Extended Speed | The highest speed permissible with the flaps in a prescribed extended position. Exceeding Vfe with flaps deployed risks structural damage to the flap mechanisms and wing surfaces. This defines the upper limit of the white arc. | Approach / Landing | PPLCPLATPL |
| Vno | Maximum Structural Cruising Speed | The speed that should not be exceeded except in smooth air, and only with caution. It marks the boundary between the green arc (normal operating range) and the yellow arc (caution range) on the airspeed indicator. | Cruise | PPLCPLATPL |
| Vne | Never Exceed Speed | The absolute maximum speed the aircraft must never exceed in any operation, whether in smooth or turbulent air. Exceeding Vne may cause structural failure. Marked by the red line on the airspeed indicator. | All phases (limit) | PPLCPLATPL |
| Vx | Best Angle of Climb Speed | The speed that produces the greatest altitude gain over the shortest horizontal distance. Used for obstacle clearance after takeoff. Vx is always lower than Vy. | Climb | PPLCPLATPL |
| Vy | Best Rate of Climb Speed | The speed that produces the greatest altitude gain in the least amount of time. Used for normal climb to cruise altitude when obstacle clearance is not a factor. | Climb | PPLCPLATPL |
| Vle | Maximum Landing Gear Extended Speed | The maximum speed at which the aircraft may be flown with the landing gear extended. Designed to prevent aerodynamic and structural loads on the deployed gear from exceeding limits. | Approach / Transition | PPLCPLATPL |
| Vlo | Maximum Landing Gear Operating Speed | The maximum speed at which the landing gear may be extended or retracted. Vlo is often lower than Vle because the gear doors and mechanisms experience higher loads during the transition cycle. | Takeoff / Approach | PPLCPLATPL |
| Vmc | Minimum Control Speed (Air) | The minimum airspeed at which directional control can be maintained with one engine inoperative and the other at takeoff power, landing gear retracted, and no more than 5 degrees of bank toward the operative engine. Marked by a red radial line on multi-engine airspeed indicators. | Takeoff / All phases (multi-engine) | CPLATPL |
| Vref | Reference Landing Speed | The speed used as a reference for final approach and landing. Typically 1.3 times Vs0 for the applicable landing configuration and weight. This is the target threshold crossing speed in normal operations. | Approach / Landing | PPLCPLATPL |
V-speeds are indicated airspeed (IAS) values. Actual values vary by aircraft type and weight — always consult the aircraft's POH/AFM for specific speeds applicable to your aircraft.
Airspeed Indicator Markings
The standard airspeed indicator uses color-coded arcs and lines to represent key V-speed ranges at a glance. These markings are defined by 14 CFR Part 23/25 and correspond directly to the V-speeds above.
White Arc
Vs0 to Vfe
Flap operating range
Green Arc
Vs1 to Vno
Normal operating range
Yellow Arc
Vno to Vne
Caution range
Red Line
Vne
Never exceed
White Arc — Flap Operating Range
Extends from Vs0 (stall speed in landing configuration) at the low end to Vfe (maximum flap extended speed) at the high end. Flaps may only be deployed when the airspeed is within the white arc.
Green Arc — Normal Operating Range
Extends from Vs1 (stall speed in clean configuration) at the low end to Vno (maximum structural cruising speed) at the high end. This is the safe operating range for normal flight conditions, including turbulence.
Yellow Arc — Caution Range
Extends from Vno to Vne. Flight in this range should only occur in smooth air and with caution. If turbulence is encountered while in the yellow arc, reduce speed to below Vno immediately.
Red Line — Never Exceed
A single red radial line at Vne. This speed must never be exceeded under any circumstances — exceeding it risks catastrophic structural failure including flutter, control surface divergence, and wing failure.
V-Speeds by Phase of Flight
Takeoff Speeds
- V1 (Takeoff Decision Speed) — The critical go/no-go decision point. Below V1, the takeoff can be safely aborted. At or above V1, the takeoff must be continued. V1 is computed based on runway length, aircraft weight, temperature, altitude, wind, and runway surface condition.
- Vr (Rotation Speed) — Applied at or after V1. The pilot smoothly rotates the aircraft to the takeoff attitude. Premature rotation (before Vr) can result in a tail strike; late rotation wastes runway.
- V2 (Takeoff Safety Speed) — The minimum climb speed following an engine failure at V1. The aircraft must reach V2 by 35 feet AGL to ensure a safe climb gradient.
Climb Speeds
- Vx (Best Angle of Climb) — Maximizes altitude gained per unit of horizontal distance. Used when obstacles must be cleared. Vx produces a steeper flight path but a slower climb rate compared to Vy.
- Vy (Best Rate of Climb) — Maximizes altitude gained per unit of time. Used for the normal enroute climb to cruise altitude. Vy is always greater than Vx; the two speeds converge at the aircraft's absolute ceiling.
Cruise Speeds
- Vno (Maximum Structural Cruising Speed) — The top of the green arc. Normal cruise flight should be at or below Vno. Exceeding Vno enters the yellow (caution) arc, acceptable only in smooth, calm air.
- Vne (Never Exceed Speed) — The absolute structural limit. Flight at or above Vne risks aerodynamic flutter, structural divergence, and airframe failure.
Approach and Landing Speeds
- Vref (Reference Landing Speed) — The target speed crossing the runway threshold. Typically calculated as 1.3 × Vs0 for the landing weight and configuration. Wind corrections (additive for gusts) are applied on top of Vref.
- Vs0 (Stall Speed, Landing Configuration) — The stall speed with gear down and flaps fully extended. Defines the minimum approach speed boundary.
- Vfe (Maximum Flap Extended Speed) — Flaps must be retracted if the airspeed exceeds Vfe. During a go-around with full power applied, the pilot must ensure the aircraft does not accelerate past Vfe before retracting flaps incrementally.
Multi-Engine V-Speeds
Multi-engine aircraft introduce additional V-speeds related to asymmetric thrust conditions — the loss of one engine while the other continues producing power.
| V-Speed | Name | Definition |
|---|---|---|
| Vmc | Minimum Control Speed (Air) | The minimum airspeed at which directional control can be maintained when one engine suddenly becomes inoperative and the remaining engine is at takeoff power. Determined with the most unfavorable conditions: critical engine inoperative, maximum takeoff power on the operative engine, landing gear retracted, flaps in takeoff position, up to 5 degrees of bank toward the operative engine, and most aft CG. Below Vmc, the rudder authority is insufficient to counteract asymmetric thrust. |
| Vyse | Best Rate of Climb Speed, OEI (Blue Line) | The speed that provides the best rate of climb (or minimum rate of descent) with one engine inoperative. Marked by a blue radial line on the airspeed indicator — commonly called the “blue line speed.” After an engine failure, the pilot accelerates to and maintains Vyse to maximize climb performance on the remaining engine. |
| Vxse | Best Angle of Climb Speed, OEI | The speed that provides the best angle of climb with one engine inoperative. Used when obstacle clearance is required after an engine failure during the climb phase. Vxse produces a steeper climb path than Vyse but a lower climb rate. |
Vmc is one of the most critical speeds in multi-engine flying. If the aircraft decelerates below Vmc with asymmetric thrust, the pilot will be unable to maintain directional control. This can result in a rapid yaw and roll toward the dead engine — a condition that can quickly become unrecoverable at low altitude. Multi-engine pilots must commit Vmc to memory and maintain airspeed above Vmc at all times during OEI operations.
V-Speed Important Notes
Va (Maneuvering Speed) changes with aircraft weight. Va is published for maximum gross weight. At lighter weights, Va is lower because the aircraft can reach its limit load factor at a lower airspeed. Many POH/AFMs publish Va values for multiple weight ranges. Flying at or below Va does not guarantee structural protection from repeated or combined control inputs — it protects against a single full deflection of one control only.
- All V-speeds are Indicated Airspeed (IAS). The markings on the airspeed indicator and the V-speeds published in the POH/AFM are indicated airspeed values. True airspeed (TAS) will differ from IAS at altitude due to decreased air density, but the structural and aerodynamic limits are based on the dynamic pressure that IAS measures.
- Always reference the aircraft POH/AFM. The V-speeds listed here are general definitions. Actual numeric values vary by aircraft type, model, weight, configuration, and conditions.
- V-speeds are certification-derived. Manufacturers determine V-speeds through rigorous flight testing during the type certification process under 14 CFR Parts 23 or 25.
- Weight and configuration affect many V-speeds. Vs, Vs0, Vs1, Va, Vref, and Vmc all change with weight. Vx and Vy change with altitude.
- Turbulence requires speed awareness. In turbulence, reduce speed to at or below Va. Never operate in the yellow arc (above Vno) in turbulent conditions.
V-Speed Mnemonic Tips
Common study aids used by student pilots and instructors for remembering V-speeds:
Quick Reference Card — 15 Key V-Speeds
The most commonly tested V-speeds for PPL and CPL exams. Print this card or save as PDF for quick study.